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Initial Language Teacher Education in Chubut.
Where we are, where to go.
Dario Luis Banegas
Student number: 0835065
Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
MA in English Language Teaching
Centre for Applied Linguistics
University of Warwick
June 2009
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract i
List of acronyms ii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Literature review 3
2.1 Theory and Practice in LTE 32.1.1 The developmental position 5
2.2 Theory-Practice-Praxis 6
2.3 Types of knowledge in LTE 72.3.1 Content knowledge 8
2.3.1.1 Defining content knowledge 82.3.1.2 Sources of content knowledge 92.3.1.3 Language as subject-matter development 10
2.3.2 General pedagogical knowledge 112.3.2.1 Defining general pedagogical knowledge 11
2.3.2.2 Incorporating other sources 122.3.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge in pre-serviceeducation
13
2.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge 142.3.3.1 Defining pedagogical content knowledge 142.3.3.2 Broadening the scope and sources of pedagogical content knowledge
16
2.3.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge in programmes
17
2.4 Models of teaching 192.4.1 The craft model 192.4.2 The applied-science model 202.4.3 The reflective model 20
2.5 ILTE programmes in Chubut 212.5.1 New directions in ILTE programmes 23
2.6 In retrospection 25
Chapter 3 Method 27
3.1 Participants 273.2 Instruments 27
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3.3 Procedures 29
Chapter 4 Data analysis and discussion 30
4.1 ILTE overall view 30
4.1.1 Positive aspects 304.1.2 Negative aspects 33
4.2 Further explorations on programme impact 374.2.1 Content knowledge 384.2.2 Pedagogical content knowledge 404.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge 414.2.4 General methodological aspects 42
4.3 Balance between theory and practice 434.3.1 On theory 434.3.2 On practice4.3.3 Results under the light of models and conceptionsof teaching
4445
4.4 Balance in the knowledge base 464.4.1 Content knowledge 474.4.2 ELT pedagogical knowledge 494.4.3 General pedagogical knowledge 51
4.5 Participants and the future of ILTE 51
4.6 Summary of findings 53
Chapter 5 Conclusions and implications 55
5.1 Conclusions 555.2 Implications 56
Bibliography 58
Appendix 1 Questionnaire 63
Appendix 2 Follow-up questionnaire. Sample. 67
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Abstract
Initial language teacher education programmes continually change. However, thesechanges seldom reflect graduates opinions since programme design is generally a top-down process. The purpose of this study is to understand what foundations ILTEprogrammes in Chubut, Argentina, should feature by investigating the perceptions agroup of teachers had as regards the programmes they completed, their impact in their professional life, and how they perceived programmes could be structured in terms of thebalance between theory and practice and the knowledge base. Fifteen participants wereadministered a questionnaire and two of them also received a follow-up questionnaire for further explorations. Results showed that participants favoured practice over theory, and
that content knowledge was a key component in their teacher education. Followingparticipants perceptions, ILTE programmes could be improved if coherence among allthe components and actors in the programmes were more context-based and exercisedthoroughly. This implies that institutions and programme designers need to create spacesfor a more active participation of trainees and trainers in programme design in order toimprove coherence.
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
AR Action ResearchCLT Communicative Language TeachingEFL English as a Foreign LanguageELT English Language TeachingESP English for Specific PurposesILTE Initial Language Teacher EducationINSET In-service trainingLTE Language Teacher Education
MATESOL Masters in Teaching English to Speakers of Other LanguagesNNS Non-Native Speaker PRESET Pre-service trainingSLA Second Language Acquisition
Chapter 1
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INTRODUCTION
One fundamental aspect to investigate teachers and their practices is to begin byunderstanding their initial language teacher education programmes, that is, the balance
between theory and practice programmes feature, the knowledge base, the models of
teaching those programmes favour and to what extent they respond to trainees/teachers
expectations.
The purpose of this study is to understand what foundations ILTE programmes in
Chubut should feature by investigating the perceptions a group of teachers from this part
of Argentina had as regards the programmes they completed, their impact in their professional life, and how they perceived programmes could be structured in terms of the
knowledge base.
Therefore, the literature review of this dissertation will first focus on the balance
between theory and practice in ILTE and then discuss how this balance permeates
through the knowledge base found in teacher education. Regarding the knowledge base,
particular attention will be given to three types of knowledge: content knowledge, general
pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. Following the knowledgebase, models of teaching will be analysed under the light of theory and practice in order
to fully understand ILTE programmes in Chubut, the context of this dissertation.
The method chapter will describe the participants, the instruments and how data
will be analysed together with limitations found in the process of this dissertation.
In the section devoted to data analysis and discussion, I will analyse the impact
ILTE programmes had on my participants and explore their perceptions as regards thestructural components of programmes so as to improve them in the province of Chubut,
which is my motivation for conducting such a piece of research. I firmly believe that in
order to introduce meaningful changes in ILTE in my context, we need to be more open to
receiving feedback from trainees and teachers and profit from their perceptions so as to
enhance the programmes offered.
Last, the conclusion and implications chapter will offer some avenues which could
be explored so as to improve ILTE programmes in Chubut considering participants
responses in this study.
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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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In this chapter, I will establish a theoretical framework to understand the features
of ILTE programmes in Chubut and what should be done to improve them.
First, I will discuss the issue of the balance between theory and practice in
programme design as it is one of the major concerns trainees usually refer to. Its purpose
is to offer a framework which will help us understand the constructs behind this debate
and how these permeate through the knowledge base found in ILTE programmes.
Second, taking Shulman (1986, 1987) as our initial step, I will explore three
particular types of knowledge found in the knowledge base: content knowledge, general
pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. The aim of this section is to
centre our attention on the types of knowledge Chubut has based its ILTE programmes
on, and how their balance is connected with the theory-practice debate and models of
teacher education found.
Last, I will specifically describe ILTE programmes in Chubut in terms of their
features and what needs to be considered for their improvement.
Overall, the aim of this chapter is to move from general aspects of initial language
teacher education to elements which are directly connected with programme design.
2.1 Theory and practice in LTE
An initial word in this divide. Theory here means research-driven theories,
scholarly disciplines, and formal educational scholarship (Shulman, 1987:8-12). Theory is
seen as external, as knowledge which has been codified in terms of seminars in ILTE
programmes. To put it more simply, it comprises the foundations treated in seminars such
as Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, Second Language Acquisition, Philosophy, Pedagogy,
Methodology, Literature, and Psychology among others (Lawes, 2002:2-3).
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On the other hand, practice refers to the what-I-can-do aspect of theories of
teaching and learning. This part may be found in teacher education in the shape of
seminars such as Professional Practice, Methodology and the Practicum or in seminars
which use technology to bridge the gap (Gomez et al ., 2008; Htter et al., 2009).
It has been said that it is teachers who have fuelled the theory-practice divide as
their own craft knowledge is what determines what makes a good teacher. Because of
the way that the profession has been institutionalised, teachers feel context-bound and,
because of the pressure within a certain context, theory seems detached from the real
world. Trainees might see practice as context-bound, limited, and the best way of
acquiring rapid survival techniques. However, it is this very view which limits their
development towards a deeper language teacher education. On the other hand, trainers
regard theory as a living body which facilitates longer term effects, generalisations and
professional development since theory can be seen as context-free and therefore
applicable to more than one situation. This is what Grenfell (1998:10-11) sees as the
theory-practice divide. How can these two views be reconciled? To what extent can
theories of teaching and second language learning (Mitchell and Myles, 2004), be shaped
and made to establish a dialogue with trainees beliefs? These are questions worth
asking when designing ILTE programmes as they will shape the model of teacher
education to be adopted.
It follows then that, when it comes to ILTE programmes, the theory-practice divide
plays a significant role as it shapes trainees teaching to some extent. If programmes
adopt a particular conception, does it mean that such a view of teaching is stronger than
others making it more valid to be followed by trainees and therefore adopt a non-
compatibility position? If programmes, on the other hand, embark on an eclectic position
where all conceptions are equally valid, do they run the risk of creating confusion in
trainees as they might see the programme as lacking cohesion since several viewscoexist simultaneously? Another question could be asked in terms of chronological
development, can programmes go from prescription (science-research, and theory-
philosophy) to creativity? Such a position assumes that trainees views of teaching
develop in a linear fashion over time. As we can see, these conceptions produce a
dramatic impact on trainees as programmes may adopt one of these conceptions
emphasising the theoretical or practical side of the profession. Though Freeman and
Richards (1993) do not claim to have found a solution to this issue, they find that from the
non-compatibility position, the eclectic position and the chronological development
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position in ILTE programmes, this latter is the most intriguing to explore (ibid: 212) as it
adopts a conception of teaching linked to a framework of a professional life-span.
2.1.1 The developmental position
In this section, I will briefly discuss two studies which adopt a developmental
position as regards conceptions of teaching.
In a study carried out by investigating the construction of knowledge of teaching
by pre-service students at an elementary teacher education programme, Kroll (2004)
positions herself within the developmental view. She concludes by saying that to become
effective teachers, student-teachers need to have an understanding of theories of
teaching and learning. However, this understanding needs to be carried out in such a way
that student-teachers progressively connect these theories with their own towards a
constructivist view of knowledge. What is emphasised by Kroll (ibid: 217) is that in order
to fight back this myth of theory as being complicated and inapplicable, trainers should
develop a method of teaching which helps trainees integrate scholarly theory with their
own thinking towards a critical development of their knowledge as regards teaching.
Another study which seems to lean towards a developmental view, thus placing
more emphasis on the theoretical side of the issue, is reported by Cheng et al. (2009).
Pre-service students, though with some mixed and weak positions, seem to move from
nave beliefs at the beginning of their education to more sophisticated beliefs which
constructively integrate discipline-driven theory with their own schema and experience
from the practicum. This shift in thinking may support the idea that programmes should
adopt a developmental view as long as they take into account trainees initial beliefs. Thiscould be reflected in the fact that student-teachers might initially stay in a zone marked by
theory present in different seminars within the programme, and, as they move along they
are able to relate this theoretical or philosophical view of teaching with their own field
experience enabling them to create their own theories.
Initially, it could be concluded that the theory-practice debate may be understood
as a continuum developed over time in which student-teachers move from a conception
of teaching heavily influenced by theory to a conception in which theory and practice
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inform each other. However, another construct such as praxis, may be included in ILTE.
The theory-practice-praxis relationship is the focus of the next section.
2.2 Theory-Practice-Praxis
The theory versus practice debate in ILTE is taken further by Johnson (2006:239-
241) who asserts that this division might be better understood if we see it as
theory/practice versus praxis since this latter construct captures how theory and practice
inform each other. Praxis, then, is the sum total of experiences lived in the field, in the
practicum, when student-teachers teach a number of lessons. Praxis realises the ongoing
dialogue in trainees minds between expert knowledge and experiential knowledge in
order to achieve a better understanding of themselves as teachers and their classroom
practices.
Thus, the task for ILTE programmes is to create public spaces which legitimise
these processes so that future teachers might recognise as equally valid their praxis
understanding under the light of theory in its philosophical-scientific sense. However, this
creation of new spaces should not undermine the presence of SLA, applied linguistics or
language learning as subject-matter in ILTE programmes, for the creation of a zone which
might be termed as the anti-research approach where anything might go (Bartels,
2004:128-129; Tarone and Allwright, 2005:8-10).
As we can see, the balance between theory and practice towards praxis could be
ethereal in teacher education. We must be aware that a noticeable disparity of strands
(Tarone and Allwright, 2005:12-13) will respond to a particular conception of teaching andconsequently to a specific model of language teacher education from a whole array of
possibilities. This poses interesting questions: How do ILTE programme designers see
the field? Is it training and therefore practice/praxis supported by what efficient teachers
do the core of the curriculum? Or is it seen as development and education, and therefore
programmes will be based on a deeper understanding of issues which transcend a
particular context (Lawes, 2002:42)? These questions entail a balance in the knowledge
base in terms of content and pedagogical knowledge. This is the concern of the following
section.2.3 Types of knowledge in LTE
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This section will discuss the features of three main aspects of knowledge in LTE:
content knowledge, general pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content
knowledge. The aim will be to situate our discussion within a matrix which moves from
contemplating the knowledge base to how this is actually crystallised in the context of this
dissertation.
In two seminal articles, Shulman (1986, 1987) presents his position about the
knowledge base in teacher education after observing how knowledge of pedagogy and
content evolve in the minds of novice teachers. Shulman argues that the knowledge base
cannot be founded only on research on effective teaching (Freeman and Johnson,
1998:399) or on a view of teaching which sees the teacher as able to understand what
needs to be taught and how it is to be taught (Shulman, 1987: 7). Therefore he proposes
a set of categories which might illuminate what underlies teachers understanding of how
to promote and enhance learners intellectual capacity.
His categories are:
content knowledge ; general pedagogical knowledge , with special reference to those broad principles and
strategies of classroom management and organization that appear to transcend subjectmatter; curriculum knowledge, with particular grasp of the materials and programs that serve as
tools of the trade for teachers; pedagogical content knowledge , that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is
uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional understanding; knowledge of learners and their characteristics; knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from the workings of the group or classroom,
the governance and financing of school districts, to the character of communities andcultures; and
knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical andhistorical grounds.
(Shulman, 1987: 8, my bold type)
As stated at the beginning of this section, I will only focus on content knowledge,
general pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge. It could be argued
that curriculum knowledge might be a source of pedagogical knowledge whether it is
general or content specific. Moreover, knowledge of learners, educational contexts
together with educational ends could also be interpreted as part of pedagogical
knowledge since the how we teach will be deeply rooted in our understanding of our learners, who they are and how they behave in the general educational matrix.
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2.3.1 Content knowledge
In this section, I will define this type of knowledge and the sources which play a
crucial role in its constitution. In addition, I will focus on the issue of subject matter and
how this could be further divided into three vital aspects: knowledge of the language,
improvement of the target language, and cultural knowledge.
2.3.1.1 Defining content knowledge
Content knowledge refers to the amount and organisation of knowledge per se in
the mind of the teacher and which makes the distinct subject matter of the profession
(James, 2001:5; Shulman, 1986:9; 1987:9). As regards teachers of EFL, Roberts (1998:
105) points out that having content knowledge means that teachers show knowledge of
the systems of the target language and competence in it. This means that teachers
should have declarative knowledge of the language (Bailey et al., 2001: 23; Day
1990:43), i.e. knowledge about English grammar and phonetics, for instance, and be
simultaneously proficient and confident users of it as they will become language models
for their learners (Barnes, 2002:199).
Although it is asserted that well founded content knowledge provides ground for
authority and supports the fact that teaching is a profession (Ball, 2008:404), it is
essential that we acknowledge that, in ELT, English may be a foreign language taught as
a subject (Widdowson, 2002:67-68). This means that teachers will present a pedagogical
construct of the language as a real entity, which should not be equated to the languageas experienced by its native speakers. Thus, we might suggest that teachers in
Argentina, for example, should not be expected to know English as if it were their L1.
Such an expectation would fail to recognise the numerous contextual features which
might go against this goal in language teacher education.
The following sections will look at the issue of sources of content knowledge with
special attention to subject matter and its improvement since such an aspect is crucial in
contexts such as Argentina where English holds a foreign language status.
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2.3.1.2 Sources of content knowledge
The sources for this type of knowledge will come from, as Shulman (1987, 8-9)
describes, scholarship content disciplines related to English as a system. However, when
we refer to content knowledge, we mean not only knowledge about the language but also
the development of the different components of communicative competence. Needless to
say, some of the sources, such as Linguistics, Phonetics, and Grammar, will enhance the
linguistic competence of prospective teachers. With reference to Linguistics, Bartels
(1999:46-56) adopts a cautious stance. He believes that linguistic knowledge will become
meaningful to student-teachers provided it shows them how this knowledge can be used
for language teaching. Linguistics teaching, Bartels continues, should be for developing
knowledge of interlanguage analysis, and developing skills in analysing second language
learning in specific students. I believe this may be a rather functional view of Linguistics
as it is expected to be applied to teaching only. In my view, Linguistics needs to be
explored both for its own sake and for language teaching purposes since teachers, as in
my experience, may become involved in projects which deal with language studies
without direct educational implications.
On the other hand, it is also claimed that communicative competence will be best
achieved if intercultural understanding is included in programmes (Byram, 1999:73;
Woodgate-Jones, 2008:2-3). Also, Davies (2002:63) states that a social component in the
shape of sociolinguistics offers ILTE both knowledge about the complexities of speech
communities found in the English language, and skills which will inform curriculum
choices among varieties of English. This sociolinguistic source within content knowledge
applies to both subject matter knowledge, the language as a system, and cultural
awareness. To speak about communities of practice in this matrix is to includeinformation about World Englishes as another source for knowledge-base whose origin is
not American or European (Brown, 2002:446).
Therefore, this interest in the social aspect of content knowledge can be seen
under what we might call general cultural knowledge whose sources could be History,
Geography and Literature among others which see language in society. Thus, we can
make a distinction between subject-matter knowledge , i.e., knowledge of the languageconnected with linguistic competence, and general cultural knowledge , which aims at
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expanding student-teachers cultural capital in their ILTE. Such a distinction should be
remembered throughout this dissertation as these two aspects will be seen as vital
components in ILTE programmes.
2.3.1.3 Language as subject matter development
Initially, we might consider the fact that once a certain level of proficiency has
been achieved, it is necessary to improve that level. For instance, Berry (1990:97-98)
asserts that this language improvement can be achieved if two components are solidly
shaped in LTE programmes: content knowledge and language improvement.
Both Berry (1990) and Cullen (1994: 164-165) stress that this emphasis in
language improvement is mostly felt in EFL contexts where teachers do not have many
opportunities of interaction with speakers whose English is their L1. Berry (1990), for
instance, conducted a study in Poland where teachers were asked to rank Methodology,
Theory (theories of language and teaching) and Language Improvement in order of
importance according to their needs. Language Improvement was ranked first followed by
Methodology. Theory did poorly in participants ranking as they felt they had had enough
of it.
Another example of the impact of language improvement comes from a study in
which supervisors from MATESOL programmes in the US and Canada were interviewed
about the connections between being a good teacher and having a proficient level of
English. Llurda (2006) concludes that there is a strong belief that NNS teachers with a
high language proficiency level will be better prepared to teach at more contexts and all
levels as language proficiency is thought to be closely linked with self confidence in ateaching situation. This expected degree of knowledge depends on the type of ELT model
advocated since some might focus on linguistic competence while others will emphasise
language awareness (Woodgate-Jones, 2008:2). All in all, this study suggests that
language improvement as one aspect of content knowledge should be reinforced in
programmes.
When ILTE programmes need to enhance the content knowledge of prospective
teachers, there are some suggestions to follow. First, language can be improved if mostcomponents of a programme are taught through the medium of English. Second, both
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language and methodology components can be integrated if the concept of loop input
(DelliCarpini, 2009) is explored as it will combine content with communicative strategies
at the same time. In a nutshell, loop input refers to the combination of content of what is
to be learnt with the process on how to learn about it, i.e., an alignment of content and
process (Woodward, 2003:301). For instance, if trainers need to introduce the concept of
dictogloss, they can use the very same technique to present its procedures and benefits
so that trainees enhance their professional vocabulary and use the language in new
situations.
Before moving on, one crucial aspect should be remembered from this section.
Knowledge about the language is vital in ILTE programmes in Argentina (Zappa-Hollman,
2007) since it will provide prospect teachers with more professional opportunities.
2.3.2 General pedagogical knowledge
This section will define general pedagogical knowledge and will outline its sources
considering their influence in the knowledge base of teacher education.
2.3.2.1 Defining general pedagogical knowledge
By general pedagogical knowledge, Shulman (1987:8) means aspects about
pedagogy in general regardless of the content knowledge teachers are to be specialised
in. The sources of this type of knowledge come from philosophy, pedagogy, psychology
and research interested in capturing a general framework of teaching and learning.
Following Richards and Farrell (2005:9-10), general pedagogical knowledge
empowers prospective teachers with self-awareness of the educational system as a
whole together with an understanding of learners supported by studies in psychology and
pedagogy. In addition, this type of knowledge paves the way to build in pedagogical
expertise as well as an understanding of curriculum and materials which do not
necessarily come from the realm of ELT. I particularly favour this concept of teacher
empowerment through general pedagogical knowledge as it allows teachers to have abetter understanding of their educational context which transcends the ELT classroom. In
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other words, teachers of English are teachers who have specialised in ELT and therefore
they need to be aware of the dynamics of the educational system as a whole.
2.3.2.2 Incorporating other sources
In the development of general pedagogy, there has been an expansion as regards
the sources which feed in this field. Though at the beginning, as it was outlined above,
philosophy, pedagogy and history of education together with research-driven knowledge
were the bases for a context-free view of education, it has been pointed out that during
the 1980s a new body of research emerged: teacher cognition (Crandall, 2000:38;
Freeman and Johnson, 1998:400). Broadly speaking, by teacher cognition we mean
general pedagogy taking into account teachers beliefs together with their experiences as
teachers and students. Based on this view of pedagogical construction, Wilson and
Cameron (1996:182) indicate that student-teachers also start education programmes with
established perceptions of what teaching is based on their experiences as learners at
previous stages. Johnson (2006:236) states that teacher cognition research has been
able to present a more complex picture of who they are, what they believe in, and how
they understand the processes of teaching and learning guided by their own experience.
This new conceptualisation of teacher cognition has opened up the exploration of
a sociocultural turn in teacher education. Here then, the social activities student-teachers
engage in become crucial as this learning with others will impact tremendously on their
development (Johnson, 2006:237-238). This impact will validly generate teachers as
users and creators of knowledge derived from their own social activities in their history.
General education research informs us that once the notion of teachers as theorisers in
their own right has been acknowledged, this recognition has to permeate through thedifferent components of a teacher training programme in such a way that teachers
knowledge, as it were, can be articulated with scholarly sources present in general
pedagogical knowledge (ibid:241-242).
2.3.2.3 General pedagogical knowledge in pre-service education
Within the realm of beliefs in the development of general pedagogical knowledge
we can look at studies carried out in general pre-service education. The following studies
discuss how general pedagogical knowledge impacts on trainees.
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One study which could shed some light regarding general pedagogical knowledge
in pre-service education is Cheng et. al . (2009). Bachelor of Education students were
administered a questionnaire followed by a semi-structured interview so as to explore to
what extent knowledge derived from research and other sources could change student-
teachers beliefs on teaching and learning. Results show that participants possess mixed
beliefs and inconsistencies between epistemological beliefs, i.e., beliefs regarding how
knowledge can be acquired, and conceptions of teaching. These views underpin their
tendencies to favour teacher-centred or student-centred approaches. The study
concludes by highlighting that conceptions of teaching are belief-driven and therefore a
relational pedagogy and holistic approaches (Korthagen, 2004) should be included in pre-
service programmes so as to create a new dialogic space among trainers and
prospective teachers. This suggestion seems to confirm what Gutirrez Almarza
(1996:73-74) asserts. He stresses that teacher education programmes should allow
student-teachers to examine their own beliefs and pre-training experiences to understand
how these can relate to education knowledge. It is believed that teachers beliefs do not
try to undermine ILTE; on the contrary, they can contribute to make it more meaningful. In
other words, these beliefs will not clash with content coming from scholarly sources since
trainees will not find theories of learning and teaching as distant from them but rather as a
powerful source which will help them reach a better understanding of their own
conceptions of teaching and learning.
Another study which looks at the way student-teachers construct their knowledge
of pedagogy is reported by Cheng (2005). In a longitudinal study, Bachelor of Education
students at Hong Kong Institute of Education were interviewed so as to understand their
construction of knowledge during the field experience component of the programme.
Findings show that participants construction of pedagogical knowledge is enhanced by
working in interaction with peers and supporting teachers. The study concludes that by
adopting a view of learning and knowledge of teaching as socially shared to supportstudent-teachers, their initial development will be characterised by an integral vision of
their learning and field experience. Learning with others will lead to deeper individual
learning. This study may also be compared to another study conducted by Van Zoest and
Stockero (2008). They report that a systematic use of reflection helps student-teachers
revisit their conceptions of teaching and support their exploration of self-as-teacher.
Needless to say, this self-as-teacher will feed in both general pedagogical knowledge as
well as pedagogical content knowledge.
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As a preliminary framework, we might see that this type of knowledge is crucial in
ILTE, in any teacher education in fact, as it provides student-teachers with a view which
integrates scholarly theories with their own beliefs and experiences.
General pedagogical knowledge also needs to infuse other aspects of a
programme. When content knowledge, i.e. subject-matter knowledge and situated cultural
knowledge, intersects with general pedagogical knowledge, a new element for the
knowledge-base becomes essential. This new type of knowledge will make all the
difference between teachers of English and other areas. We are referring to pedagogical
content knowledge.
2.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge
To provide a picture of pedagogical content knowledge together with its source is
a risky enterprise. To put it simply, it is to outline English Language Teaching, since
pedagogical content knowledge for us means how to teach English as a foreign
language. Here, I will particularly focus on the macroaspects and the sources which
inform this strand in a curriculum since they will determine how pedagogical content
knowledge is realised in ILTE programmes.
2.3.3.1 Defining pedagogical content knowledge
First, let us consider what Shulman understands by pedagogical content
knowledge:
A second kind of content knowledge is pedagogical knowledge, which goes beyondknowledge of the subject matter per se to the dimension of subject matter knowledgefor teaching . () the particular form of content knowledge that embodies aspects of content most germane to its teachability.
(Shulman, 1986:9)
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His conceptualisation of this particular type of knowledge is central to teacher
education as it will establish the difference between a teacher who teaches English
because this is his first language, and university student who studies English from
another who studies how to teach English.
For Shulman (1987:9), pedagogical content knowledge is core as
() it identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching. It represents theblending of content and pedagogy into an understanding of how particular topics,problems, or issues are organized, represented, and adapted to the diverse interestsand abilities of learners, and presented for instruction. Pedagogical content knowledgeis the category most likely to distinguish the understanding of the content specialistfrom that of the pedagogue.
From this quote we can detect a converging zone where general pedagogy,
subject-matter and the teaching of a particular content interact to distinguish one teacher
from another in terms of specialisation. This aspect of teacher education will provide
trainees with examples, illustrations, explanations, demonstrations, and essential topics
to deal with the content their learners are supposed to learn at school.
The sources which will contribute to this portion of the knowledge-base will come
from scholarship in content disciplines, education material and structures, and action
research as understood by Widdowson (1990) and Smith (2004), all under the scrutiny of
what Shulman (1987:11) calls wisdom of practice, that is, procedural knowledge informed
by experience.
Pedagogical content knowledge assumes that student-teachers understand that
they will teach English as a subject and therefore they need to initially explore what has
been called pedagogic valency (Widdowson, 2002:79-80). This could be interpreted as
the ability to deconstruct our knowledge of the language in such a way that we make it
accessible for learners to approach. However, a word of caution can be found in Richards
(1987:3) as regards how trainees are taught English in their programmes. He calls for an
approach which truly connects subject-matter knowledge and practice in terms of
procedural knowledge as preparation for language teachers. This means that trainers
who are in charge of teaching the language should use those methods being taught in
Professional Practice, for instance. Basically, the point he is advancing here is the
apparent lack of internal coherence inside ILTE programmes since a possible
contradiction in the approaches being advocated can also be found within the strand
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which represents pedagogical content knowledge. One of the main challenges or
expectations that pedagogical content knowledge faces when realised in seminars is this
practise what you preach idea or congruence between what teacher educators claim and
what they actually do in their classes (Swennen et al ., 2008). Especially in this strand,
trainers are expected to reflect the methodologies taken on board and claimed to be in
favour of (Wallace, 1991), a fact which seems to be neglected in Chubut.
2.3.3.2 Broadening the scope and sources of pedagogical content knowledge
As this type of knowledge also deals with the restructuring of content knowledge
for the purposes of pedagogy to our learners benefit, we could also include here
knowledge of our learners. Their needs, characteristics and expectations will very much
influence the decision-making processes teachers engage in when in practice. Due to
these factors, Ball et al. (2008) distinguish two subdomains within pedagogical content
knowledge: knowledge of content and students, and knowledge of content and teaching.
This awareness as regards subdomains needs to be systematically introduced at an initial
stage of teacher education since this understanding will illuminate the relationship
between teacher-learners or peers. Pedagogical content knowledge should inform
trainees that their actions transcend the classroom dimension influencing more than their
learners lives inside the classroom.
Thus, this influence needs to be seen within a social matrix that is crystallised in a
context-responsive curriculum. If general pedagogical knowledge needs to take care of
trainees expectations, so does pedagogical content knowledge. It is not enough to know
who trainees are. It is also vital to recognise the context for which these trainees are
being educated. Pedagogical content knowledge needs to be rooted in the context future-teachers will deal with in their immediate experiences. To begin with, ILTE programmes
should always have in mind that, as in the case of Argentina, they need to be responsive
in terms of the status of English as a foreign language (Carrier, 2003; Liyanage and
Bartlett: 2008). Second, programmes need to be aware of the following fact: to what
extent the methodologies, approaches, techniques being offered as tools are feasible in
the trainees contexts.
All in all, the sources explored above will inform ILTE programmes in the form of seminars or modules student-teachers are supposed to follow throughout their education.
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The next section will look at how pedagogical content knowledge permeates through
components such as Methodology and the Practicum.
2.3.3.3 Pedagogical content knowledge in programmes
In this section I will emphasise how pedagogical content knowledge is first
reflected in the practicum with special reference to collaborative work and teacher
cognition during this period in pre-service teacher education.
Pedagogical content knowledge can be channelled by means of subjects such as
Applied Linguistics, Professional Practice, and Methodology among other labels to teach
the how of the profession.
One vital component in most programmes is the practicum or field experience,
that is, the teaching of a number of classes at a school or different schools depending on
the goals and programmes student-teachers are taking. Crookes (2003:12) views the
practicum as an opportunity to develop self-directed behaviour towards independence,
which does not have to be confused with individuality. Either in PRESET or INSET
courses, teachers are encouraged to work collaboratively to explore peer coaching and
peer observation, mentoring, or team teaching like in ILTE programmes in Argentina.
Collaboration, as Knezevic and Scholl (1996:79) and Richard and Farrell (2005) put it, is
a powerful vehicle for developing knowledge of teaching.
So far we can see how the concept of teacher cognition inevitably permeates
through pedagogical content knowledge as another source which informs this base.
Together with a general belief on pedagogy, student-teachers also enter ILTEprogrammes with preconceived ideas about foreign language pedagogical knowledge.
The goal of a programme will be to develop a richer theoretical framework for future
teachers to resort to (Watzke, 2007).
Nonetheless, there is still some suspicion concerning the real extent of the impact
of teacher cognition and sociocultural theory in the construction and enactment of ILTE
programmes. As Freeman and Johnson (1998:402) put it, there is still the conviction that
trainees need to be filled qua empty vessels with content knowledge and theories of teaching and exposed to a range of different practices in the belief that those experiences
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will be automatically transferred to real classroom situations once trainees obtain their
first teaching post. They also suspect that even though programmes may offer three
different strands, there is little cohesion since what is reflected in one strand seems
virtually nonexistent in another (Berry, 1990:102). These suspicions have raised another
issue, the balance of sources of pedagogical content knowledge. Yates and Muchisky
(2002, in Freeman and Johnson, 2004:119-120) fear that the whole interest in teacher
cognition and focus on trainees might be detrimental to Second Language Acquisition as
a vital source of information in this knowledge type. In other words, it is thought that
theories of learning and teaching languages might be discarded and replaced by what
prospective teachers believe as regards how languages are learnt and therefore should
be taught.
In addition, there has been an interest in the inclusion of a third language in ILTE
programmes as another informing source. According to Flowerdew (1998), the
incorporation of a third language into the curriculum makes trainees aware of the
experience of foreign language learning as they learn a new language. This experience
seeks to help trainees reflect on the complexities underlying language learning as they
become students again, a situation which they need to be familiarised with as their
students will undergo the same process. Inevitably, such an experience produces a
remarkable impact on trainees as they see pedagogical content knowledge in action
through the learning of another language. How this module is carried out in terms of
lesson procedures may have a greater impact than a vast amount of time devoted to
Applied Linguistics as a separate module within the curriculum.
As regards pedagogical content knowledge as a whole, it may be agreed that its
presence in curricula should be greater as compared to general pedagogical knowledge
as the latter will inform the former about pedagogy applied to a specific subject matter.
Also, it may be agreed that the practicum should be a vital component within this type of knowledge as it will allow student-teachers to build bridges between their education as
teachers and classroom practices provided context-responsive methodologies are
encouraged (Hayes, 2009; Richards and Lockhart, 1994).
We may say that, regardless of knowledge type, the knowledge base has common
sources for planners to exploit: scholarly disciplines connected with research, action
research, professional practice and teacher cognition. These mayor sources interact with
each other and inform each other making the base develop towards a deeper understanding of the field as a profession in its own right. Furthermore, we may say that
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these strands of knowledge also show the tension between what could be seen as the
everlasting division between theory and practice and models of teaching. In our next
section, we will briefly look at this issue within ILTE programmes.
2.4 Models of teaching
In this section, I will show how the balance of theory and practice together with the
knowledge base are realised in the models of teacher education curriculum designers
may favour.
Wallace (1991) explains that professional expertise in language teacher education
can be reached through three models:
The craft model
The applied science model
The reflective model
Let us begin our discussion by looking at the features and assumptions behind the
craft model.
2.4.1 The craft model
This model, according to Wallace (1991), leans towards practice and praxis and
the concept of learning by demonstration. In other words, this model represents the
concept of apprenticeship of observation (Grenfell, 1998:7-8; Randall and Thornton,
2001:35) by which a novice or trainee learns from observation and talking with a more
experienced teacher who is assumed to be of the effective kind, whatever that means.
Thus, the emphasis of this model is on the practical aspects of teaching supporting that
this observation will lead to explore the underlying reasoning for the actions observed.
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In addition, this model includes some knowledge of the context, and learners and
material, but then this knowledge is absolutely context-bound as what the novice learns is
effective only in the context of observation. There is no room for generalisations or
trainees beliefs, and if these are imbued, the danger is that trainees may trial the very
same techniques they observe with other classes obtaining unexpected results, let alone
other surprises.
2.4.2 The applied science model
The applied science model, which can be found in ILTE in Chubut, is heavily
based on the transmission of knowledge from language educators to student-teachers.
The kind of knowledge to be imparted comes from research findings. These findings are
used to develop theories of learning, general pedagogical knowledge, which are then
applied to practice of a particular field, pedagogical content knowledge.
Once again, in this model, teaching is perceived as training and therefore student-
teachers are provided with prescribed exercises and know-how technicalities to enable
learners to practise. This view, though in contrast with the craft model as it is context-free,
also falls short in the sense that it tends to overgeneralise principles of teaching and the
foundational research behind them. It is a top-down model by which trainees are
transmitted expertise from western wisdom (Bax, 1997:233; Hayes, 2009).
2.4.3 The reflective model
The reflective practitioner model with the central role of reflection (Crandall,
2000:39) has had a major influence since the 1980s. In a nutshell, Grenfell (1998:14)
explains that in this model problems encountered in the praxis are framed for reflection
and understanding of action.
Grenfell (1998:14-15) feels that this stress on reflection is very much dependenton personal experience, something which trainees may lack and therefore find it difficult
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to draw connections between reflection and theory either derived from research or
disciplines which make up the body of pedagogical knowledge. Other limitations of this
conception can be found in Roberts (1998:51). In his view, this capacity for creative
problem-solving appropriate to the context the teacher is in falls short as it neither applies
to expertise as a whole, nor does it offer empirical evidence which supports the
processes which are supposed to be found in reflection in action.
One example of this concern can be exemplified through a study carried out in
Taiwan (Liou, 2001). Observation reports and practice teaching reports of prospective
teachers at an EFL teacher education programme were analysed to see the development
of critical reflection over a six-week period. Though they showed a progress from
description to reflection, their contributions were not as substantial as expected.
Therefore, the study concludes that more reflection should be encouraged so as to trigger
a deeper critical reflective development. Again, we might feel that this implication is purely
top-down rather than bottom-up as it only sees the issue from the trainers viewpoint.
As regards the reflective model as a whole, it might be concluded that, though this
model assigns great importance to teacher cognition and seeks to establish solid
connections between ILTE with classroom practices, it is feared that it may discourage
prospective teachers from becoming more involved in knowledge coming from scholarly
sources. It may be due to this fear that the model of teacher education adopted in Chubut
is closer to the applied-science model than the reflective model.
2.5 ILTE programmes in Chubut
This last section will discuss how the issues presented so far are evidenced in the
programme the participants of this study completed.
First, let us consider how this ILTE programme is structured in terms of strands,
i.e., the knowledge base:
STRAND YEAR SUBJECT PERCENTAGE of hours allocated to the strand in
the programme
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General Formation 1 Professional Practice IResearch in Education I
27.9 %
2 Professional Practice IIResearch in Education II
3 Professional Practice III (in English)Research in Education III
4 Professional Practice IV (in English)Specialised Formation 1 Learner, Learning and Context I 7.2 %
2 Learner, Learning and Context II3 Learner, Learning and Context III4 Sociocultural Issues and Diversity
Subject OrientedFormation
(all in English exceptL3)
1 English IMorphology and Syntax IPhonetics IEnglish Culture
64.9 %
2 English IIMorphology and Syntax IIPhonetics IIIntroduction to English Literature
3 English IIIPhonetics IIIEnglish Literature ISecond Language Acquisition
4 English IVEnglish Literature IIAmerican Literature
Discourse AnalysisPragmaticsL3: Portuguese
Figure 1: New curriculum for English teacher education programmes (Ministerial Resolution 323/03, my translation)
What may be found particularly confusing here is the weak correlation between
the names of each strand and the subjects which constitute them. What the Ministry of
Education of the province of Chubut (2003:28-30) has termed General Formation
covers those seminars and subjects which are related to pedagogical content knowledge
and the practicum together with action research in education. Consequently, there seems
to be confusion between general pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical content
knowledge. The Ministerial Resolution (RES M 323/03) emphasises that the contents to
be covered in this strand are closely linked to research in ELT and the practice in the
profession towards the practicum experience.
Second, the specialised formation strand groups those aspects of general
pedagogical knowledge which are common to all initial teacher education programmes.
This strand is also interested in creating a reflective dimension in the programme.
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Therefore it seems that there is a movement from a pure applied science model of
teaching to a model which also takes into consideration the reflective model.
Third, the last strand is the only one which seems to be closely related to what is
understood as content knowledge. However, compared to past programmes, the content
within each subject remains virtually untouched and ways of delivering, that is, the
methodology adopted by trainers rather unchallenged or framed.
Even though the programme is welcomed, there is still certain dissatisfaction with
to what extent these changes are trainee-responsive in the sense that the official
documents do not acknowledge any participation of trainees, teachers or trainers actively
involved in the realisation of these programmes in the province.
2.5.1 New directions in ILTE programmes
Since each province voiced the dissatisfaction of graduates and teacher trainers,
the Ministry of Education of Argentina released in 2007 a document called Lineamientos
Curriculares Nacionales (National Curricular Guidelines) in order to unify criteria and
curricula as each province had interpreted past releases in very different ways. These
new guidelines for initial teacher education in general are based on the conception of
strands from a very different standpoint. They give more attention to the pedagogy behind
each strand and reinforce the idea of loop input, and collaborative work both intra-
institution as well as inter-institution with universities and schools where student-teachers
will eventually carry out their practica.
Strands have been redefined and this time, percentages of hours allocated toeach strand have been suggested. Each province, then, is expected to reflect these
guidelines in each programme designed. So far, there are no new programmes for ELT in
Chubut, that is, what is missing is the adaptation of current programmes to these new
guidelines.
The strand which is given between 50-60 % of total hours is Specific Formation and
encompasses both subject-matter knowledge and specific didactics for that knowledge
field. The document strongly advises designers and trainers to reflect on their teaching
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the content being taught by making use of not only lectures, but seminars, and modes of
learning that consider learners and what they bring into the classroom.
The second strand as regards percentages, 25-35%, is General Formation. It is
thought as a solid theoretical framework for the humanities and general principles in
Education. It is recommended that subjects such as History, History of Education,
Philosophy, Intercultural Communication, Pedagogy and New Educational Technologies
be taken into account when designing the curriculum for a particular programme. The
document emphasises that these subjects should be mainly theoretical and offer
moments of reflection after student-teachers have acquired sound theoretical knowledge
of the field. It may seem clear that the Ministry of Education is trying to infuse more theory
rather than reflection in this particular strand.
Last, the Professional Practice Formation strand is allocated between 15-25% of
contact hours. This strand is thought as oriented towards the learning of specific skills for
the teaching profession at educational institutions through the progressive participation
and involvement in different socioeducational contexts in the city where the teacher
training institution which runs different initial teacher education programmes is located.
Furthermore, teacher education institutions should establish solid relationships with
schools and school-based mentors for student-teachers to carry out observations,
tutorials and micro teaching sessions as a process which will culminate in the extended
practicum.
Under the light of our discussion, it may be perceived that the new official
guidelines attempt to organise ILTE programmes following the knowledge base discussed
in this dissertation. In addition, the guidelines suggest a more concrete dialogue between
theory and practice and attempt to achieve a more balanced approach in terms of theory-
practice since it is felt that previous programmes tended to favour practice and reflectionat the expense of scholarly sources in programmes. However, what this new proposal
seems to disregard is prospective-teachers needs and assess the impact that ILTE
programmes have in graduate teachers as they leave the institutions which run those
programmes to obtain their first teaching positions (Zappa-Hollman, 2007).
2.6 In retrospection
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In an attempt to summarise some key issues, we may look back at what we have
discussed so far.
We started by establishing the importance of theory and practice together with the
knowledge base stemming from Shulman (1986, 1987). First, we offered an overview of
content knowledge which we divided into subject matter knowledge and cultural
knowledge. Second, an outline of general pedagogical knowledge and pedagogical
content knowledge was presented with their sources and development in time. In
connection to sources, Crandall (2000) acknowledges the cornerstone place that applied
linguistics, education theory, languages and literature have in the knowledge base of
teacher education. However, she also is aware of the greater focus on practical
experience, classroom-centred research and teacher cognition. These changes have
resulted in a move to process oriented theories of learning, teaching, and teacher
learning as teachers prior learning experiences have been accepted to play a role in the
picture. Underlying these changes, there exists the concern that teaching be viewed as a
profession which has a defined knowledge base at the start but which can be further
developed by sustained in-service programmes.
Here we can see how all elements come to a dialogue with each other and how
one conception of teaching, of education in general in fact, impinges on other aspects.
One conception of teaching will activate certain types of knowledge more than others,
impacting on the way theory and practice are perceived. Likewise, this conception
together with a particular framework of knowledge base will dictate the model of teaching
to be implemented in ILTE programmes. Yet, some questions remain. To what extent do
these programmes and endeavours truly reflect what teachers expect or believe to be the
most effective ways of initial teacher education? If we claim to be trainee-centred, are
their interests considered to a degree where programmes change their macrostructures
to suit the trainees needs or their perceptions after graduating? Overall, how can weimprove our ILTE programmes in Chubut following teachers perceptions in terms of the
balance in theory-practice and the knowledge base so that they really respond to the
particular context of situation where English language teaching and learning takes place
in Chubut? This is the research question which guided the present investigation.
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Chapter 3
METHOD
This chapter will present a description of the participants who took part in this
study and the instruments used to collect and analyse the data obtained.
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3.1 Participants
The participants in this study were 15 teachers graduated from ILTE programmes
in Chubut. Initially, seventy teachers of English were sent electronic mails asking them toparticipate in this study. Thirty-four teachers responded positively and consequently they
received a questionnaire (Appendix 1). However, only less than half of this initial
population sent the questionnaire completed, a fact which may be considered a limitation
when data collection is exclusively done electronically due to geographical constraints of
the researcher.
The programmes the fifteen participants attended were four years long and run by
teacher training institutions in different cities of Chubut. Most participants obtained their
EFL teacher training degree 10 years ago and started their teacher career afterwards.
3.2 Instruments
As regards instruments, participants were sent a questionnaire in March 2009
concerned with their views and experiences with reference to the programmes they had
taken. Since the research question of this study was how ILTE programmes in Chubut
could be improved following graduated teachers perceptions in terms of the knowledge
base, this questionnaire attempted to measure teachers attitudes, opinions and beliefs
about their ILTE programmes. The scope of this dissertation will only allow reporting on
the data collected through questions 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8.
Following Drnyei (2003:25-47) and Nunan (1992), the questionnaire combined
closed-ended question items which had to be rated in terms of intensity of agreement,
and open-ended questions which took the form of sentence completion so as to guide
participants responses.
Questions 1 and 2 asked participants about their years of teaching experience and
how long their programmes had been. Question 4 sought to analyse further ILTE
programmes in terms of impact according to the knowledge base they featured.
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As regards the knowledge base teacher education programmes should feature,
question 6 asked participants to divide 100% into four areas according to the balance
they believed ILTE programmes could offer. The areas given responded to the divisions
studied in this dissertation: content knowledge was in fact divided into two areas, subject-
matter knowledge related to knowledge of/about the language and, general cultural
knowledge in the sense that components such as Literature and History introduce cultural
knowledge as well promote language improvement since they are expected to be taught
in English. Content knowledge was divided as such so as to facilitate participants
understanding of the components that represent this type of knowledge in the
programmes they followed. Therefore, the percentages given to these two areas will be
added and appear in our discussion under content knowledge. The next area was general
pedagogical knowledge and the remaining area was pedagogical content knowledge
which was termed ELT (English Language Teaching) pedagogical knowledge in order to
help participants notice the difference between these two types of pedagogical
knowledge.
In order to explore further the answers directly linked to the role of trainers and
general pedagogical knowledge, two participants, who will be quoted using numbers 12
and 15, were sent a follow-up questionnaire (Appendix 2) based on their answers to
questions 3 and 4. Both participants were singled out for this set of open-ended questions
since their answers in general offered a negative perception of programmes. I only
focused on the negative perceptions so as to centre my attention on the aspects that
need to be addressed first by the institutions running the ILTE programmes.
This method of triangulation (Cohen and Manion, 1980) helps combine two
instruments so as to obtain more insightful perceptions from participants. On the one
hand, the closed-ended questions in the questionnaire presented a tendency which
lacked depth in terms of quality of the data collected. On the other hand, the open-endedquestions in the follow-up questionnaire two participants agreed to answer, allowed me
and the participants to reflect and understand more deeply some of the issues under
analysis. This improvement in quality of data impacts on the validity of the study by
enriching the research findings. (Cohen and Manion, 1980; Grix, 2004).
3.3 Procedures
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The data collected through the questionnaire will be presented in the next chapter
following the same order as it appeared in the instrument afore mentioned. In addition,
the data gathered by means of two follow-up questionnaires will be used to support the
data analysis and interpretation of the questions and answers which motivated such
further explorations.
As regards how data will be analysed and presented to facilitate their
interpretation, different approaches are to be adopted.
Categorisation has been chosen for the analysis and discussion of the items in
question 4, and the reasons suggested by participants for questions 6 and 8. Answersgrouped under the categories proposed have been treated by means of scores. These
scores represent the number of answers found in each category. Only question 6 has
received a slightly different treatment. In the first place, results obtained by mean
calculation are shown using a pie chart (Figure 5). In addition, modes, i.e., the score that
occurs most frequently in a set (Brown, 1988:67), are given together with the highest and
lowest scores which some participants provided so as to show the range of answers
some items obtained.
All in all, results have been categorised when answers were open and treated, in
some cases, to show the central tendency of responses.
Chapter 4
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
In this chapter I will present the results obtained from each question and discuss
these findings under the light of the literature review in this dissertation.
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4.1 ILTE overall view
The fifteen participants of this study, according to their answers in questions 1 and
2 had an average of ten years working as teachers and their ILTE programmes were four
years long.
Since the purpose of this study is to find out what aspects need to be improved in
ILTE programmes in Chubut, participants were asked to mention at least three positive
and three negative aspects of their experience. This was the aim of question 3 in the
main instrument of this study.
4.1.1 Positive aspects
Participants were asked to list at least two positive aspects. Their forty responses on
positive aspects may be grouped under four categories:
- Methodological aspects
- Pedagogical content knowledge
- Content knowledge
- Trainers
Figure 2 below shows that most answers (Y=number of answers) reflected an interest
in highlighting content knowledge (subject-matter and cultural knowledge), followed by
trainers, methodological aspects and pedagogical content knowledge.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Contentknowledge
Trainers Pedagogicalcontent
knowledge
Methodologicalaspects
Serie1
Figure 2: Positive aspects in ILTE
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The programmes interest in offering a solid base for content knowledge was
acknowledged by most participants. In their responses, it is clear the distinction between
subject matter concerning knowledge of the language, and cultural knowledge as a
means to language improvement (Berry, 1990). Most participants expressed views which
could be represented through these quotes:
Learning Grammar and Phonetics (P1) 1
Learning Linguistics (P3)Intensive syllabi in English Language and Grammar (P6)Learning about English culture (P10)Learning about other countries through Literature and History (P11)Improving my language skills through Literature (P12)Learning about other cultures through Portuguese (P13)
It is clear from these quotes that participants valued their exposure to differentaspects of and about the target language. It was their view that mastering English was
paramount in their professional education, a position which is similar to Berrys study
(1990). This mastery was not only associated with the language itself but also with the
cultural aspects that entail learning a language that is to be taught as a subject in the
educational system in Chubut. One particular aspect to observe is that some participants
also valued the presence of an L3 in the programme, in this case Portuguese. One
participant who expanded on this positive aspect asserted that
It was very enriching to our training since we had the opportunity to experience howlearning a new language feels on the side of the student. (P13)
The study of another language may have helped participants reflect and
experience again how a language may be learnt (Flowerdew, 1998) and, to some extent,
share what their own learners may undergo in the process of learning a foreign language.
The next category to be interpreted is trainers. Participants mostly valued their
attitudes. However, trainers knowledge of content was considered within the following
responses:
Inspiring and dedicated trainers (P6)Demanding trainers (P11)
These views seem to encompass all the positions that are derived from the
conceptions of teaching present in Freeman and Richards (1993:209). However in1 The P and number in brackets represent participants in the study.
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participants responses concerned with negative aspects, it is trainers who received most
of their attention.
As regards pedagogical content knowledge in its varied components, participants
viewed the practicum, classroom observation, and learning ELT methodology as positive
aspects:
Observing classes and imitating older teachers (P11)Creating your own way of teaching instead of following books (P12)
These contributions seem to emphasise teachers interest in practice and
experience rather than in theories which inform this type of knowledge. This tendency
may show that the participants of this study possessed and art-craft conception of
teaching which could fuel the dichotomy between theory and practice.
As for methodological aspects, this category covers all those responses which
were related to overall features of the programmes. Most participants commented in
positive terms about the following features:
- Cooperative work
- Written and oral final exams
- Writing assignments and papers- Making presentations
- Reading input
Since the most acknowledged aspect was cooperative work, we might assume
that participants valued learning with their peers. This fact supports the belief of learning
as a social activity (Johnson, 2006) which can be encountered and explored at all levels
of education.
All in all, this initial exploration of positive aspects in ILTE programmes shows that
what participants valued the most as trainees was the learning of the English language,
and their trainers. It is interesting to notice that even though this was a programme to
obtain a teaching degree, participants answers did not place this aspect over others. To
them, it appears, the key is subject-matter knowledge. This assumption could reflect the
belief that good models of the language entail good teachers of the language, that is,
teachers effectiveness, whatever that means, is derived from their language proficiency.
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4.1.2 Negative aspects
Participants were also asked to list at least two negative aspects. Their thirty
responses on negative aspects have been grouped under the following categories:
- General pedagogical knowledge
- Pedagogical content knowledge (including the practicum)
- Subject-matter knowledge
- Theory-Practice
- Trainers
The figure below shows (Y=number of answers) that most participants were
concerned with trainers, followed by general and pedagogical content knowledge, the
theory-practice balance, and last, subject matter knowledge.
0123
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T r a
i n e r s
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l
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d a g o g
i c a
l
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i c a
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t e n t
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b j e c
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Serie1
Figure 3: Negative aspects in ILTE
Regarding the category trainers, participants greatest concern was with theseemingly lack of pedagogical preparation of trainers to carry out the programme. This
negative aspect was also supported by the fact that, according to the participants, some
trainers tended to focus solely on their subject-matter and showed certain disparity
between content and methodology. This might suggest that they expected loop input from
their trainers, that is, a closer relationship between content and methodology to introduce
that content (DelliCarpini 2009; Woodward, 2003:301).
Participants expected to find in their trainers a model of teacher for their ownprofessional education. This expectation could be exemplified by one response:
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1998), a position which may clash with trainees own theories (Wilson and Cameron,
1996:182).
Another aspect that appeared recurrently was the fact that this type of knowledge
was mainly taught in Spanish, the participants L1. This could be interpreted as a
shortcoming in the programmes since participants seemed to favour that all subjects were
taught in English as a way of improving their English proficiency (Berry, 1990). One
participant expanded on this issue by expressing that
I had very little time to study and improve my English. I ended up dedicating 70 % tothe Spanish subjects and 30% to the subjects in English. Spanish teachers were muchmore interested in how many pages the assignments had than on how good our assignments were. (P12)
Even though this quote also shows some methodological concerns which will be
explored below, this participant felt that subjects in Spanish acted in detriment of those
taught in English, implying that if these had been in English, her attitude towards them
might have been more positive as the target language was the medium of instruction. All
in all, it could be said that due to the fact that Spanish was the language used,
participants did not benefit from general pedagogical knowledge as much as they would
have desired if English had been used. It could be argued, then, that language choiceacted as a barrier which prevented them from benefiting from subjects such as
Psychology or Philosophy.
With reference to negative aspects which can be grouped under pedagogical
content knowledge, the practicum is the most problematic. Those participants who
mentioned this aspect expressed that on the one hand, the practicum period was rather
short and only at the end of their programme and that they were expected to produce
several lesson plans and follow them closely. This concern seems to be related to the
next category, theory-practice. However, if we consider both positive and negative
aspects of this category, not all participants viewed the practicum, for instance, similarly.
What can be concluded is that while they found the experience fruitful, it could have been
extended over a longer period of time.
As stated above, the theory-practice debate over balance covers the three types
of knowledge present in figure 3. First, some of the negative comments belonging to
general pedagogical knowledge bear an intimate relation to this category. The
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participants felt that not only there was more emphasis on scholarly disciplines, but also
lack of relationship between input and opportunities to experience content or feeding back
the theoretical stance of a course into their own explorations.
Regarding the last category of negative aspects, subject-matter knowledge was
thought to be threatened by the fact that, according to some responses, there was not
enough feedback on language improvement from trainers, and Grammar and Phonetics
were only present as separate subjects in two years of the programme.
No feedback for language improvement (P7)I had Grammar and Phonetics in years 1 and 2 only (P8)
It follows that participants would have liked to receive more L2 input not only
through general pedagogical subjects taught in English but also by increasing their
exposure to studies about the English language. So far we may say that participants
stressed the importance of subject-matter knowledge in their initial teacher education.
This could be understood if we bear in mind that opportunities to use the target language
are scarce and teachers usually believe their level is not good enough to be teachers of
English in a foreign language context. Although the programmes the participants attended
did have content knowledge as a priority in terms of hours allocated, there is a need to
have this strand increased together with a more extended use of English as medium of
instruction.
Initially, it may be argued that the most positive aspect of ILTE programmes in
Chubut stems from the content knowledge strand. This attitude reveals participants
adherence to a conception of teaching where knowledge of the subject is paramount in
their education. On the other hand, trainers and pedagogical knowledge appear to be
more controversial than other aspects. First, participants responses revealed that trainers
were thought to be responsible for the success of a programme and that they were
expected to show the connections that there exist between theory and practice in
teaching. When trainees cannot see such links in theory-practice, the former may be
discarded, and reliance on the latter appears to increase.
4.2 Further explorations on programme impact
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The positive impact of the programmes was further explored in question 4 of the
questionnaire which asked them to rate a set of items (Figure 4) according to positive
influence in their teacher education.
The items participants had to refer to could be categorised as follows:
- Content knowledge: a, b, c, d, k.
- Pedagogical content knowledge: f, g, h, j, m, n, o, q, u, x.
- General pedagogical knowledge: s, t.
- General methodological aspects: e, i, l, p, r, v, w.
The following figure (Figure 4) shows the number of responses under each item and
intensity in the scale. The order of the items reproduces the table participants had to
complete.
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Figure 4: Impact of ILTE programmes in participants
4.2.1 Content knowledge
Let us begin our analysis by focusing on the content knowledge category. This
category encompasses knowledge of the system and competence in it (Roberts,
1998:105), cultural knowledge (Woodgate-Jones, 2008: 2-3) and how this knowledge was
effectively explored by the trainers in charge of this strand and the impact it caused onparticipants.
S t r o n g
l y
a g r e e
A g r e e
P a r
t l y a g r e e
P a r
t l y
d i s a g r e e
D i s a g r e e
S t r o n g
l y
d i s a g r e e
a- Learning English Grammar and Phonetics. 14 0 0 0 1 0 b- Learning Linguistics. 9 3 1 0 2 0c- Learning Literature. 12 3 0 0 0 0d- The way trainers taught me a b c above. 4 5 4 0 0 2e- Feedback from trainers. 4 3 7 0 0 1f- The way trainers taught Methodology and Professional Practice. 4 0 5 0 5 1
g- The way the practicum was organised. 2 3 5 0 4 1
h- The theoretical aspect of Methodology. 4 4 4 1 0 1i- Taking final exams (written and oral). 7 3 2 0 3 0
j- The practical aspect of Methodology. 6 4 4 0 1 0k- Learning Culture, History and Geography of English speaking
countries.5 6 2 0 2 0
l- Working on my own. 8 4 2 0 1 0m- Observing classes. 7 5 3 0 0 0n- The practicum. 8 3 3 1 0 0o- Learning Methodology. 7 4 2 0 1 1
p- Feedback from other student-teachers. 7 6 2 0 0 1q- Studying Second Language Acquisition. 8 5 1 0 0 1r- Working collaboratively. 8 6 0 0 0 1
s- Learning general pedagogy and psychology. 5 7 1 0 0 2t- Learning theories of education in general. 2 7 4 0 0 2u- Reading about how to teach skills, grammar, pronunciation 8 2 3 0 1 1v- Writing assignments, papers. 8 4 2 1 0 0w- Making presentations. 10 3 1 0 0 1x- Evaluating and designing material. 10 3 0 1 0 1
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Regarding knowledge of language, this can be recovered from items a and b .
Almost all participants strongly agreed that learning English grammar and phonetics in
the first place and Linguistics in the second place had a positive influence in their teacher
education. These results support what participants expressed as one of the most positive
aspects of programmes as a whole. Therefore, the stress on subject-matter knowledge
stands unchallenged by other components in the programme. Within content knowledge,
cultural knowledge was also acknowledged as positive. Learning Literature, and, to a
lesser extent, learning Culture, History and Geography were seen as having a positive
impact on teacher education.
However, this positive attitude seemed to disperse along the intensity scale when
it came to evaluating the methodologies trainers adopted to teach content. Even though
all answers were located within the positive side, participants tended to consider this item
differently. It follows that, one the one hand, participants reflected positively towards
content but were able to draw a distinction between content and methodology. This
distinction, in my opinion, seems to be connected with some of the negative aspects
highlighted above, mainly those concerning trainers ability to teach in this strand.
In one of the follow-up questionnaires, participant 12 was asked to expand on her
dissatisfaction with item c . She said that
Some teachers did not teach us how to analyze a book. On Linguistics we were onlygiven books