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B7 Further BiologyB7 Further Biology

M Barker

Shirebrook Academy

(OCR 21st Century)

21/04/23B7.1 Peak Performance – B7.1 Peak Performance – Movement and ExerciseMovement and Exercise

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The Skeletal SystemThe Skeletal System

The internal skeleton of a vertebrate does 3 jobs:

1) It gives the body SHAPE

2) It allows the body to MOVE

3) It PROTECTS the major organs

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Joint MovementJoint Movement

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A typical joint – the kneeA typical joint – the knee

Synovial fluid – an oily substance that reduces friction

Cartilage – stops the bones from rubbing against each other

Ligaments – hold the joint together

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Medical History AssessmentMedical History Assessment

Factors to be included in a medical assessment

Symptoms

Current Medication

Alcohol consumptio

n

Tobacco consumptio

n

Level of physical activity

Family medical history Previous

treatments

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Medical Treatment ProjectMedical Treatment ProjectTask: Produce a project (PowerPoint, leaflet, poster etc) on how medical treatments are administered. Your project should include information on the following:

1) How patient assessments are carried out

2) The benefits of regular contact and detailed record keeping

3) What needs to be done after a diagnosis

4) How and why physiotherapy might be administered

5) How progress can be monitored and assessed

6) Injuries – sprains, torn ligaments, dislocations etc, including what they are and how you treat them.

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Body-Mass IndexBody-Mass IndexA commonly-used way to indicate is someone is overweight or underweight is the Body Mass Index (BMI):

BMI = Mass (kg)

Height2 (m2)

BMI Meaning

<18.5 Underweight

18.5-25 Ideal

25-30 Overweight

30-40 Obese

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Common InjuriesCommon InjuriesWhat are these injuries?

Dislocated shoulder

Sprained ankle

Torn ligament

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Treating a Sprained AnkleTreating a Sprained AnkleHere’s a sprained ankle:

To treat a sprained ankle you’d use the RICE method -

R –

I –

C –

E -

Rest

Ice

Compression

Elevation

21/04/23B7.2 Peak Performance - B7.2 Peak Performance - CirculationCirculation

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The Circulatory systemThe Circulatory systemThe circulatory system is responsible for pumping ______ around the body. We need blood to be taken around the body because blood contains ________ and _______. These are needed so that all the ____ in our bodies can produce _____ through _________.

The main organs in the circulatory system are the _____, the lungs and the kidneys.

Words – energy, heart, blood, glucose, respiration, oxygen, cells

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The four parts of bloodThe four parts of blood1. RED BLOOD CELLS – packed with haemoglobin and carry ______ around the body. They have no _______ and a bioconcave shape for increased surface area.2. PLATELETS – small bits of cells that lie around waiting for a cut to happen so that they can ____ (for a scab).

3. WHITE BLOOD CELLS – kill invading _______ by producing _________ or engulfing (“eating”) the microbe.

These three are all carried around by the PLASMA (a straw-coloured liquid). Plasma transports CO2 and ______ as well as taking away waste products to the ______.

Words – antibodies, clot, kidneys, oxygen, nucleus, glucose, microbes.

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The HeartThe Heart1. Deoxygenated blood (i.e. blood without oxygen) enters through the vena cava into the right atrium

2. It’s then pumped through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle

3. It’s then pumped through the semi-lunar valve up to the lungs through the pulmonary artery

4. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters through the pulmonary vein into the left atrium

5. It’s then pumped through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle

6. It’s then pumped out of the aorta to the rest of the body

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““Double Circulation”Double Circulation”1) Blood gets pumped from the heart to the lungs and picks up oxygen. The haemoglobin in the cells becomes oxyhaemoglobin

2) The blood is then taken back to the heart…

3) The heart pumps the blood to the intestine (where oxygen and glucose are removed). The oxyhaemoglobin is split up into oxygen and haemoglobin…

4) … and to the rest of the body (where oxygen is also removed)

5) After the oxygen and glucose have been removed for respiration the blood is sent back to the heart and starts again

21/04/23Capillaries and Capillary Capillaries and Capillary tissuetissue

Here’s a capillary:

Capillaries are tiny blood vessels that have permeable walls so that substances can diffuse in and out (like oxygen in the lungs and glucose in the intestine). Here’s how this works:

Capillary

Tissue fluid

As blood passes through the capillary beds molecules like oxygen and glucose are forced out to form the tissue fluid. They then diffuse out into the cells and substances like carbon

dioxide and urea diffuse back into the capillaries.

glucose

Surrounding cells

21/04/23B7.3 Peak Performance – B7.3 Peak Performance – Energy BalanceEnergy Balance

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Body TemperatureBody Temperature

Effectors (muscles and sweat glands) carry out the response. Some effectors work “antagonistacally” – what does this

mean?

Nerve endings in the skin detect the external temperature

Temperature detectors in the brain (the hypothalamus) detect the blood

temperature

The brain coordinates a response using hormones

21/04/23Maintaining Body Maintaining Body TemperatureTemperature

Cold Hot

Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction

Here are two ways your body will change to lose surplus heat:

Excessive exercise can lead to dehydration, which may lead to reduced sweating and a further increase in body

temperature.

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Low Body temperatureLow Body temperatureWhat does your body do

to try to keep body temperature constant when you are cold?

Shivering occurs, which results in some of the energy transferred in respiration being used to warm the surrounding tissue.

Also, blood vessels constrict (“vasoconstriction”) in order to restrict blood flow through skin capillaries.

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DiabetesDiabetes

What is diabetes?

What do the pens (above right) do?

What does an insulin injection (above left) do?

What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes?

How does physical activity affect Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetics?

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DiabetesDiabetesDiabetes is a ________ in which a person’s blood sugar (i.e. glucose) level may rise to a _______ level. Type 1 diabetes is when the ______ doesn’t produce enough _________, whereas type 2 diabetes is when the body no longer responds to its own insulin or doesn’t make enough of it.

Type 1 diabetes can be controlled using insulin ________ whereas type 2 diabetes can be controlled by careful _______ and exercise. Diabetics have to test their blood sugar level before they decide how much insulin to _______ themselves with. Diets high in fibre and complex carbohydrates can help to maintain a healthy sugar level.

Words – insulin, disease, inject, dangerous, eating, pancreas,

injections

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Diabetes and ObesityDiabetes and Obesity

% obesity of US

population

No. of people (in millions)

with Diabetes

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More interesting statistics…More interesting statistics…

No. of fast food outlets

No. of people (in millions)

with Diabetes

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B7.4 What can we learn from B7.4 What can we learn from natural ecosystems?natural ecosystems?

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EcosystemsEcosystems“Ecosystem” is a term used to describe all of the organisms living together as a community in a particular habitat and can often be self-supporting other than the need for an energy source.

Possible waste products from an ecosystem:

Waste

products

Oxygen from treesCarbon dioxide

from animals

Dead organic matter Notice that waste products from some

organisms are used by other organisms – this is a “closed loop” system and a perfect closed loop is when nothing is wasted.

21/04/23An example of a loop in an ecosystem - An example of a loop in an ecosystem - CarbonCarbon

CO2 in air 1. CO2 is

taken in by plants

2. Plants release CO2 through respiration

3. The carbon taken in by plants is then eaten by animals

5. Animals (and plants) die and their remains are fed on by microbes

6. These microbes also release CO2 through respiration 4. Animals

release CO2 through respiration

Notice that no ecosystem is a perfect closed loop due to the loss of some output. Where could this happen in the carbon cycle?

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Stable EcosystemsStable EcosystemsA “stable ecosystem” is one where the outputs (losses) are balanced by gains, e.g. a rainforest:

Examples of why a rainforest is a closed ecosystem:

Some organisms produce large numbers of reproductive structures like eggs and flowers. The ones that don’t survive into adulthood are recycled into the ecosystem.

The vegetation prevents soil erosion (by binding the soil) and extremes of temperature and also encourages cloud formation, so that whatever is lost from a river is replaced by rainfall

21/04/23Human impact on Human impact on ecosystemsecosystems

Humans rely on ecosystems for lots of things, including:

Is it possible for humans to run a closed ecosystem on our own?

- Clean air

- Water

- Food

- Fish

- Game/meat

- Non-recycled waste?

- Burning fossil fuels?

Here are some ways in which humans can affect an ecosystem:

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Accumulation of pesticidesAccumulation of pesticidesInsecticides can wash into a stream or lake where they are taken up by microscopic water plants. Consider the food chain:

Although the level of insecticides in the plants is small, it will build up through the food chain due to the number of organisms in each stage. In this example, if each plant had “one bit” of pesticide, the bird will have eaten 9 bits.

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EutrophicationEutrophicationYet another example of pollution, eutrophication is when lakes become stagnant due to careless use of fertiliser. There are six steps:

1) Inorganic fertilisers used on fields are washed into the lake

3) This growth causes overcrowding and many plants die due to lack of enough light or food

2) The fertiliser causes increased growth in water plants

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EutrophicationEutrophication4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material

5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration

6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals

Can’t…breathe…

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EutrophicationEutrophication4) Microorganisms and bacteria increase in number due to the extra dead material

5) These microorganisms use up the oxygen in the lake during respiration

6) The lack of oxygen causes the death of fish and other aquatic animals

21/04/23Removing Biomass from an Removing Biomass from an EcosystemEcosystem

Deforestation occurs when biomass like trees is removed from a natural closed loop system for use by humans:

Over-fishing in a lake can also be unsustainable.

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Sustainable DevelopmentSustainable DevelopmentSustainable development is all about preserving the world

for tomorrow.

Examples of sustainable development include:

1) Replanting trees after chopping them down

2) Limiting the number of fish allowed in a catch (a “quota”)

3) Protecting endangered species

The main point is – “don’t use resources at a rate quicker than

they are made”

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Crude OilCrude OilHere’s some crude oil:

Crude oil can never be considered part of a closed system as it takes millions of years to form.

Crude oil is formed from the decay of dead organisms, who basically got their energy from the sun millions of years ago – crude oil is called “fossil sunlight energy”.

The sun is a sustainable source of energy for natural ecosystems and sustainable agriculture – without it, we can’t survive!

21/04/23Natural Ecosystems and Human Natural Ecosystems and Human NeedsNeeds

Natural ecosystems should be preserved but we also need to look after our basic

needs!

Some societies have tried replacing natural vegetation with

agricultural crops and livestock, but this can often lead to problems

like a loss of biodiversity or desertification

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B7.5 New TechnologiesB7.5 New Technologies

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Using BacteriaUsing BacteriaHere are some pictures of bacteria:

Bacteria are useful for industrial and genetic processes for many reasons:- Rapid _________

- Presence of ________

- Simple biochemistry

- Ability to make complex _________

- Lack of ______ concerns

Bacteria and fungi can be grown on large scales (__________) to produce things like antibiotics, single-cell proteins, enzymes for food and enzymes for products like ________ ______ and biofuels.

Words – washing powder, molecules, reproduction, plasmids, fermentation, ethical

21/04/23Genetic modification - Genetic modification - InsulinInsulin

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas to help control blood sugar levels. Diabetics can’t produce enough insulin and often need to inject it. Until recently, insulin was taken from pigs and cows.

Insulin can now be made by genetic modification. Genetic modification is when a gene from one organism is transferred to another and continues to work:

21/04/23Genetic modification - Genetic modification - InsulinInsulin

Step 1: Using RESTRICTION ENZYMES “cut out” the part of the human chromosome that is responsible for producing insulin.

Step 2: Using another restriction enzyme cut open a ring of bacterial DNA (a “plasmid”). Other enzymes are then used to insert the piece of human DNA into the plasmid.

Step 3: Place the plasmid into a bacterium which will start to divide rapidly. As it divides it will replicate the plasmid and make millions of them, each with the instruction to produce insulin. Commercial quantities of insulin can then be produced.

21/04/23The Steps in Genetic The Steps in Genetic ModificationModification

Here are the basic steps in genetic modification:

Step 1 – isolate and replicate the required gene

Step 2 – put the gene into a suitable vector (virus or plasmid)

Step 3 – use the vector to insert the gene into a new cell

Step 4 – select the modified individuals

As well as making insulin, this procedure can also be used to make herbicide resistance in plants. How would this help food production?

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Genetic ModificationGenetic ModificationAdvantages Disadvantages

Improving crop yield

Improving resistance to pesticides

Extend shelf-life

Manufacture a certain chemical (e.g. insulin)

Convenience

Genetically modified organisms may be expensive

Unknown effects on ecosystems

Effects may be passed on to other crops, e.g. weed resistance spreading from crops to weeds

Ethical issues

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Genetic TestingGenetic Testing

Task: Produce a report describing how genetic testing (e.g. finding out who the real father is) is done.

I am your father

Your report should include:

1) How genetic testing is done (in 3 or 4 stages)

2) The role of DNA and UV in the process

3) Other examples of things that can be genetically tested

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How Genetic Testing worksHow Genetic Testing worksHere are the four stages in genetic testing:

Isolate the DNA sample from white blood cells

Produce the gene probe labelled with a fluorescent chemical – this will find the faulty

gene

Add the labelled gene probe (marker) to the DNA sample to find the faulty gene

Use UV to detect the marker and therefore indicate the position of the gene or the presence of a specific allele in the DNA

sample

Gene probe

Gene probe

Faulty gene

Gene probe

Faulty gene

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NanotechnologyNanotechnology

Nanotechnology is a new branch of science that refers to structures built from a few hundred atoms and are 1-100nm big (i.e. about the size of a molecule). They show different properties to the same materials in bulk, partly because they also have a large surface area to volume ratio and their properties could lead to new developments in computers, building materials etc.

Definition:

21/04/23Two examples of Two examples of nanotechnologynanotechnology

Nanotechnology can also be used to detect contaminants – for example, a milk carton could tell you when the milk has gone off.

Silver nanoparticles can be used to give fibres antibacterial properties – look at what they do to e-coli bacteria:

Normal e-coli

E-coli affected by silver

nanoparticles

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Stem Cell researchStem Cell research

White blood cell

Egg cell (ovum)

Ciliated epithelial cell

Nerve cell (neurone)

A stem cell is a cell that hasn’t yet specialised into other forms of cell:

Adult stem cells can potentially be used to treat leukaemia and spinal chord injuries.

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Biomedical EngineeringBiomedical EngineeringBiomedical engineering is when devices like pacemakers and artificial valves are used to treat heart problems or irregular heartbeats: