© T. M. Whitmore

TODAY•The sugar plantation economies of the

Caribbean

•The African slave trade in Latin America

•Non-sugar colonial economies in Brazil

•Colonial Economies of Mainland Spanish Possessions (Mexico and Peru) and Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore

LAST TIME- Questions?

•Early Spanish settlement patterns

•Urban Morphology in Spanish America

•Social aspects of Spanish colonial settlement

•Portuguese settlement of Brazil

•The sugar plantation economies of Brazil

© T. M. Whitmore

Caribbean adoption of Brazilian plantation system

•Northern European Colonies recreated Brazilian system after 1640

•Similar agro-ecological advantages•Better slave security•Easier transport to Europe•Became the most valuable colonies

for each state!• Impacts

Soil depletionVast increase in Afro-origin

population

© T. M. Whitmore

Characteristics of plantation ag•Old world plants and techniques

•Requires huge land holdings – discourages small holders

•Cheap labor needed•Absentee owners or few local owners•Uses best land•Settlement is at plantation not cities•Cultural/spatial/class dualism •Economy is wholly export and

dependent on world market•“mining” of resources (soils and

timber) => impoverished local areas

© T. M. Whitmore

Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore

African slavery in Brazil and Caribbean

•Characteristics•Chronology•Geography

BrazilSpanish AmericaCaribbean

•Totals•African origins•Decline of slavery after 1800•Consequences of plantation/slave a

griculture

© T. M. Whitmore

Sugar & Slaves1500s – 1700s

~ 4.3 million Africans transported as slaves

To Brazil

© T. M. Whitmore

Sugar & Slaves in the Caribbean

~ 1.8 m slaves to Spanish colonies~ 1.7 m slaves to French colonies~ 2.9 m slaves to English colonies

© T. M. Whitmore

Slavery In The AmericasBRAZIL ~ 4.3 million

SPANISH AMERICA50% to Cuba (900 k)20% to Mexico (360 k)10% to Venezuela (180 k)20% Columbia, Panama, Ecuador

~ 1.8 million

FRENCH AMERICAMostly to Martinique & Haiti

~ 1.7 million

ENGLISH AMERICA40% to Jamaica (1.2 m)22% to North America (640 k)20% to Barbados (580 k)13% other Caribbean (377 k)

~ 2.9 million

Totals are approximate and probably are underestimates. (nearly 5 m to small Caribbean islands)

~ 10.7 million

© T. M. Whitmore

Slavery In The Americas 1492- 1880

•1492 - 1600 ~ 1% of all slaves transported~ 40% of slaves in this period to

Brazil; 60% to the Spanish coloniesearly period slave transport ~ 125k

•1600 - 1700 ~ 14% of all slaves transportedtotals transported about 1.3m~ 40% to Brazil, 20% to Spanish

colonies, 38% to N European Caribbean

© T. M. Whitmore

Slavery In The Americas 1492- 1880 II

•1700 – 1810 (peak of slave trade)~ 64% of all slaves transportedtotals ~ 6 millionNorth America ~ 6%, British Caribbean

~ 23%, Spanish America ~ 9%, French Caribbean ~ 22%, Brazil ~ 31%, Dutch and Danish Caribbean the rest

•1810 – 1870~ 20% of all slaves transportedtotals ~ 1.9mBrazil 60%, French Caribbean ~ 5%,

Spanish America ~ 32%

© T. M. Whitmore

Consequences of the sugar/slave system

•Altered racial makeup

• Influenced settlement patterns in Brazil and Caribbean

• Influenced labor and social relationships

• Influenced land tenure systems: latifundia vs “mini-fundia”

•Degraded environment and lost resources

© T. M. Whitmore

Non-sugar Economy of Colonial Brazil

•Tobacco & Cattle

•Non-sugar south—Sâo Paulo and slave raiding

•Gold Rush at Minas Gerais in late 1600s/early 1700s

© T. M. Whitmore

Sugar & Slaves1500s – 1700s

Minas Gerais

Later SettlementCattle & Tobacco

Paulista or BandeiranteIndian Slave raids

Rio de Janeiro Sâo Paulo

Colonial Brazilian Economies

© T. M. Whitmore

Overview of Brazil 1500 — 1800

•Little lasting development: 2 boom/bust cycles; sugar and gold

•Much environmental destruction

•Set pattern of social values: beef; latifundia

•Mixed races with large African component (Black in N; Brown in Center; White in S)

•Pop mostly still coastal – 40% in NE; 30% in Minas

© T. M. Whitmore

Mining in Mexico & Peru•Since all minerals are found only in

limited areas, development centered on mining is necessarily not well distributed spatially

•Crown owned all mineral rights

•Mining was an environmental disaster

•Mining was a social disaster for Amerindians

•Gold

•Silver — much more important ultimately than gold by value

© T. M. Whitmore

Silver in colonial Spanish America

•European supply low => high value German mines in decline by 1600s

(produced only 850k oz/yr by 1600)Spanish mines annually => 8.5 m

oz!

•Silver is hard-rock mining; much more difficult than for gold => capital and labor; and environmental problems

•Mexican mines

•Potosí

© T. M. Whitmore

Potosí

M i n i n g

M i n

i n g

Minas Gerais

Copyright © 1995-2002, Bolivia WebNear Potosí

Copyright © 1995-2002, Bolivia WebNear Potosí

© Doug HardyNear Potosí

© T. M. Whitmore

Mexican non-mining colonial economy

•Livestock raisingCattle and horses (large stock)

[ganado mejor]Mexican environment favored stock

raisingControversy regarding environmental

impacts in colonial timesSmall stock [ganado menor]

© T. M. Whitmore

Stock Raising

© T. M. Whitmore

Mexican non-mining colonial economy II

•WheatDoes not mature well in lowland

tropicsSpanish varieties like dry summers

and wet wintersSolution is to plant in winter and

irrigate where necessary

Wheat

© T. M. Whitmore

• Indigenous agriculturedid not adopt many Spanish crops

or large animalsdid use small stock and some

Spanish crops mostly subsistence farming initially

— but over time tribute demanded cash => need to market some crops

Mexican non-mining colonial economy III